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Eurovision Song Contest 1988

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Eurovision Song Contest 1988
Dates
Final30 April 1988
Host
VenueRDS Simmonscourt Pavilion,
Dublin, Ireland
Presenter(s)
Musical directorNoel Kelehan
Directed byDeclan Lowney
Executive supervisorFrank Naef
Executive producerLiam Miller
Host broadcasterRadio Telefís Éireann (RTÉ)
Websiteeurovision.tv/event/dublin-1988 Edit this at Wikidata
Participants
Number of entries21
Debuting countriesNone
Returning countriesNone
Non-returning countries Cyprus
  • A coloured map of the countries of EuropeBelgium in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Italy in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Netherlands in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Switzerland in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Germany in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Monaco in the Eurovision Song ContestLuxembourg in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Spain in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Ireland in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Denmark in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Finland in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Norway in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Portugal in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Sweden in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Israel in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Greece in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Malta in the Eurovision Song ContestAustria in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988France in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Turkey in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Yugoslavia in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988Morocco in the Eurovision Song ContestCyprus in the Eurovision Song ContestIceland in the Eurovision Song Contest 1988
         Competing countries     Countries that participated in the past but not in 1988
Vote
Voting systemEach country awarded 12, 10, 8-1 point(s) to their 10 favourite songs
Winning song  Switzerland
"Ne partez pas sans moi"
1987 ← Eurovision Song Contest → 1989

The Eurovision Song Contest 1988 was the 33rd edition of the Eurovision Song Contest, held on 30 April 1988 in the RDS Simmonscourt Pavilion in Dublin, Ireland and presented by Pat Kenny and Michelle Rocca. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Radio Telefís Éireann (RTÉ), the contest was held in Ireland following the country's victory at the 1987 contest with the song "Hold Me Now" by Johnny Logan.

Twenty-two countries submitted entries to participate, however Cyprus ultimately rescinded its entry after its selected song was determined to have been performed several years' prior to the contest, breaking the contest rules. The winner was Switzerland with the song "Ne partez pas sans moi", composed by Atilla Şereftuğ, written by Nella Martinetti and performed by Céline Dion. It was Switzerland's second contest win, and remains as of 2024 the last winning song to be performed in French. The United Kingdom, Denmark, Luxembourg and Norway rounded out the top five positions, with the UK achieving its eleventh runner-up placing, while Austria placed last for the sixth time, receiving nul points for the second time.

Location

[edit]
RDS Simmonscourt Pavilion – host venue of the 1988 contest

The 1988 contest took place in Dublin, Ireland, following the country's victory at the 1987 edition with the song "Hold Me Now", performed by Johnny Logan. It was the third time that Ireland had hosted the contest, following the 1971 and 1981 events also held in Dublin.[1]

The selected venue was the Simmonscourt Pavilion of the Royal Dublin Society, a multi-purpose venue situated in the Ballsbridge area of the city, which had previously hosted the 1981 contest.[2][3] Space for approximately 1,500 people in the audience was expected following construction of the stage and other technical aspects.[2]

Participating countries

[edit]
Further information: List of countries in the Eurovision Song Contest
Eurovision Song Contest 1988 – Participation summaries by country

The same twenty-two countries which had participated the previous year submitted entries for the 1988 contest, with the draw to determine the running order of the 1988 contest held on 11 December 1987.[4] However, a number of weeks before the event, it was discovered that the song selected to represent Cyprus, "Thimame", written by John Vickers and Aristos Moschovakis and sung by Yiannis Dimitrou, had previously competed in the 1984 Cypriot national selection under the title "San to rok-en-rol", and was therefore ineligible to compete at Eurovision.[2][5][6] The Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation (CyBC) subsequently announced on 12 March 1988 that it had nullified the selection of "Thimame" as the Cypriot entry; as the rules of the 1988 Cypriot selection did not provide for a second-placed song to be declared, and as there was not enough time to stage a second selection process to determine a replacement entry, CyBC was ultimately unable to participate in the contest.[2][5][7]

Several of the artists which competed in this year's contest has performed in previous editions of the event. Sweden's Tommy Körberg has competed in the 1969 contest;[8] the duo Hot Eyes, also known as Kirsten and Søren, represented Denmark for a third time, following appearances at the 1984 and 1985 contests;[9] the group MFÖ returned for Turkey after also competing in 1985;[10] Portugal's Dora competed again two years after her previous entry;[11] and Israel's Yardena Arazi returned to compete as a solo artist, after previously representing her country as part of the group Chocolate Menta Mastik in 1976, and co-hosting the 1979 contest held in Jerusalem.[12] Additionally, Finland's Boulevard had previously performed as the backing group for the previous year's Finnish entrant Vicky Rosti, and among Yardena Arazi's backing vocalists was Yehuda Tamir and Reuven Gvirtz [he], members of the Israeli group Milk and Honey which had won the 1979 contest.[13][14]

A separate musical director could be nominated by each country to lead the orchestra during their performance, with the host musical director also available to conduct for those countries which did not nominate their own conductor. All entries were accompanied by the orchestra, except for Iceland and Italy, who were accompanied solely by backing track. In the case of the Italian entry, their backing track featured the contest's first, and as of 2024 only, fade-out ending.[15]

Participants of the Eurovision Song Contest 1988[15][16]
Country Broadcaster Artist Song Language Songwriter(s) Conductor
 Austria ORF Wilfried "Lisa Mona Lisa" German
Harald Neuwirth
 Belgium RTBF Reynaert "Laissez briller le soleil" French
Dany Willem
 Denmark DR Hot Eyes "Ka' du se hva' jeg sa'" Danish
Henrik Krogsgaard
 Finland YLE Boulevard "Nauravat silmät muistetaan" Finnish
Ossi Runne
 France Antenne 2 Gérard Lenorman "Chanteur de charme" French
Guy Mattéoni
 Germany BR[a] Maxi and Chris Garden "Lied für einen Freund" German
Michael Thatcher
 Greece ERT Afroditi Fryda "Clown" (Κλόουν) Greek Dimitris Sakislis Haris Andreadis
 Iceland RÚV Beathoven "Sókrates" Icelandic Sverrir Stormsker No conductor
 Ireland RTÉ Jump the Gun "Take Him Home" English Peter Eades Noel Kelehan
 Israel IBA Yardena Arazi "Ben Adam" (בן אדם) Hebrew
Eldad Shrem
 Italy RAI Luca Barbarossa "Ti scrivo" Italian Luca Barbarossa No conductor
 Luxembourg CLT Lara Fabian "Croire" French
  • Jacques Cardona
  • Alain Garcia
 Régis Dupré
 Netherlands NOS Gerard Joling "Shangri-La" Dutch Peter de Wijn Harry van Hoof
 Norway NRK Karoline Krüger "For vår jord" Norwegian
Arild Stav
 Portugal RTP Dora "Voltarei" Portuguese
José Calvário
 Spain TVE La Década "La chica que yo quiero (Made in Spain)" Spanish
  • Francisco Dondiego
  • Enrique Piero
 Javier de Juan
 Sweden SVT Tommy Körberg "Stad i ljus" Swedish Py Bäckman Anders Berglund
  Switzerland SRG SSR Céline Dion "Ne partez pas sans moi" French
Atilla Şereftuğ
 Turkey TRT MFÖ "Sufi (Hey Ya Hey)" Turkish
Turhan Yükseler
 United Kingdom BBC Scott Fitzgerald "Go" English Julie Forsyth Ronnie Hazlehurst
 Yugoslavia JRT Srebrna krila[b] "Mangup" (Мангуп) Serbo-Croatian
Nikica Kalogjera

Production

[edit]

The Eurovision Song Contest 1988 was produced by the Irish public broadcaster Radio Telefís Éireann (RTÉ). Liam Miller served as executive producer, Declan Lowney served as director, Paula Farrell and Michael Grogan served as designers, and Noel Kelehan served as musical director, leading the RTÉ Concert Orchestra.[18][19][20] On behalf of the contest organisers, the European Broadcasting Union (EBU), the event was overseen by Frank Naef as executive supervisor.[21][22][23] The presenters of the contest were broadcaster Pat Kenny and television announcer and Miss Ireland 1980 Michelle Rocca; the duo were announced by RTÉ in February 1988 following auditions held in the previous weeks.[24][25] It was the first time since 1979 that more than one person had presented the contest.[26]

Several technical innovations and improvements were introduced to the contest for the first time, spearheaded by executive producer Liam Miller and director Declan Lowney, who were eager to make the contest more to a younger audience.[27][28] The traditional physical scoreboard was replaced by a computer-generated version, displayed on two video walls constructed on either side of the stage.[18][27] These video walls also displayed the performances and footage of the artists in the green room during the voting sequence, allowing the audience in the arena to see the televised footage within the venue for the first time.[28] A modern feel was also implemented within the stage design by Paula Farrell and Michael Grogan, and the graphic design by Maria Quigley, aspects which had already been modernised for the previous year's edition.[27][29] The stage, at over 40 metres in length, was the largest ever built for the contest at that point, and took up almost a third of the 18,000m2 space within the Simmonscourt Pavilion.[2][18][28] The stage design, which created an illusion of depth, alongside tight camera shots of the audience and creative lighting use, resulted in an overall impression that the contest was being held in a vast and packed arena, rather than the modest space of the Simmonscourt Pavilion.[18][28]

Rehearsals for the participating artists began on 25 April 1988. Two technical rehearsals were conducted for each participating delegation in the week approaching the contest, with countries rehearsing in the order in which they would perform. The first rehearsals, comprising a 15-minute stage call and 35-minute performance, were held on 25 and 26 April, followed by a press conference for each delegation and the accredited press. Each country's second rehearsals were held on 27 and 28 April, with a 10-minute stage call and 25 minutes for performances. On 28 April, the contest venue received a visit from the Taoiseach Charles Haughey. [30] Three dress rehearsals were held with all artists, held in the afternoon and evening of 29 April and in the afternoon of 30 April; the second of these rehearsals was filmed as a production stand-by in case the live event was disrupted, with a live audience present.[4] During the contest week, Sweden's Tommy Körberg had been suffering from a throat infection; although he was able to perform during the event-proper, for the 29 April evening dress rehearsal the songwriter of the Swedish entry Py Bäckman performed the entry in his stead.[31][32]

Format

[edit]

Each participating broadcaster submitted one song, which was required to be no longer than three minutes in duration and performed in the language, or one of the languages, of the country which it represented.[33][34] A maximum of six performers were allowed on stage during each country's performance.[33][35] Each entry could utilise all or part of the live orchestra and could use instrumental-only backing tracks, however any backing tracks used could only include the sound of instruments featured on stage being mimed by the performers.[35][36]

The results of the 1988 contest were determined through the same scoring system as had first been introduced in 1975: each country awarded twelve points to its favourite entry, followed by ten points to its second favourite, and then awarded points in decreasing value from eight to one for the remaining songs which featured in the country's top ten, with countries unable to vote for their own entry.[37] The points awarded by each country were determined by an assembled jury of sixteen individuals, who were all required to be members of the public with no connection to the music industry, split evenly between men and women and across four age groups: 15–25; 26–35; 36–45; and 46–60. Each jury member voted in secret and awarded between one and ten votes to each participating song, excluding that from their own country and with no abstentions permitted. The votes of each member were collected following the country's performance and then tallied by the non-voting jury chairperson to determine the points to be awarded. In any cases where two or more songs in the top ten received the same number of votes, a show of hands by all jury members was used to determine the final placing.[38] The jury composition and voting process was modified slightly compared to the 1987 contest, due to the increase in the number of participating countries in recent years, expanding from eleven members who awarded between one and five votes for each song.[38][39]

As established at the 1970 contest, in the event that two or more countries finished in first place with the same number of points, the artists representing these countries would perform their entries again, and the juries in all countries not involved in the tie-break would determine the winner, with each country's jury selecting their favourite of the entries by a show of hands of all jurors. If after all countries had determined their favourites and there was still a tie for first place, the countries involved in this tie would be declared joint winners.[40][41][42]

Contest overview

[edit]

The contest took place on 30 April 1988 at 20:00 (IST) with a duration of 2 hours and 50 minutes.[18][43] Had Cyprus participated as planned, the country had been drawn to perform in position number two.[2][43]

The contest was opened by a video montage highlighting ancient Celtic structures, items and mythology pertaining to prehistoric Ireland, transitioning to footage of modern-day Ireland and Dublin. This was followed by a performance of the previous year's winning entry, "Hold Me Now", by Johnny Logan.[44] The interval act was the Irish rock group Hothouse Flowers, with a music video of their song "Don't Go"; the group's lead singer Liam Ó Maonlaí also appeared on stage before the music video played to explain the meaning behind the song – first in Irish, then in English – while playing the piano.[28][44][45] The music video, featuring performances of the song by the band in eleven European countries, received funding from the European Economic Community as part of the organisation's goal of advancing European integration.[28][46] The trophy awarded to the winners was presented at the end of the broadcast by Johnny Logan.[47]

The winner was Switzerland represented by the song "Ne partez pas sans moi", composed by Atilla Şereftuğ, written by Nella Martinetti and performed by Céline Dion.[48] It was Switzerland's second Eurovision win, following their victory at the inaugural edition in 1956.[49] It also remains as of 2024 the last time that a song in the French language has won.[50] The United Kingdom finished in second place for the eleventh time, and for the second time it had lost by a single point.[51] Meanwhile, Austria finished in last place for the sixth time, and achieved its second nul points result.[52][53]

Results of the Eurovision Song Contest 1988[54]
R/O Country Artist Song Points Place
1  Iceland Beathoven "Sókrates" 20 16
2  Sweden Tommy Körberg "Stad i ljus" 52 12
3  Finland Boulevard "Nauravat silmät muistetaan" 3 20
4  United Kingdom Scott Fitzgerald "Go" 136 2
5  Turkey MFÖ "Sufi (Hey Ya Hey)" 37 15
6  Spain La Década "La chica que yo quiero (Made in Spain)" 58 11
7  Netherlands Gerard Joling "Shangri-La" 70 9
8  Israel Yardena Arazi "Ben Adam" 85 7
9   Switzerland Céline Dion "Ne partez pas sans moi" 137 1
10  Ireland Jump the Gun "Take Him Home" 79 8
11  Germany Maxi and Chris Garden "Lied für einen Freund" 48 14
12  Austria Wilfried "Lisa Mona Lisa" 0 21
13  Denmark Hot Eyes "Ka' du se hva' jeg sa'" 92 3
14  Greece Afroditi Fryda "Clown" 10 17
15  Norway Karoline Krüger "For vår jord" 88 5
16  Belgium Reynaert "Laissez briller le soleil" 5 18
17  Luxembourg Lara Fabian "Croire" 90 4
18  Italy Luca Barbarossa "Ti scrivo" 52 12
19  France Gérard Lenorman "Chanteur de charme" 64 10
20  Portugal Dora "Voltarei" 5 18
21  Yugoslavia Srebrna krila[b] "Mangup" 87 6

Spokespersons

[edit]

Each country nominated a spokesperson, connected to the contest venue via telephone lines and responsible for announcing, in English or French, the votes for their respective country.[33][55] Known spokespersons at the 1989 contest are listed below.

Detailed voting results

[edit]

Jury voting was used to determine the points awarded by all countries.[60] The announcement of the results from each country was conducted in the order in which they performed, with the spokespersons announcing their country's points in English or French in ascending order.[44][60] The detailed breakdown of the points awarded by each country is listed in the tables below.

Detailed voting results of the Eurovision Song Contest 1988[61][62]
Total score
Iceland
Sweden
Finland
United Kingdom
Turkey
Spain
Netherlands
Israel
Switzerland
Ireland
Germany
Austria
Denmark
Greece
Norway
Belgium
Luxembourg
Italy
France
Portugal
Yugoslavia
Contestants
 Iceland 20 1 4 4 1 2 8
Sweden 52 3 2 8 5 8 12 1 3 10
Finland 3 3
United Kingdom 136 1 5 10 12 10 10 5 7 10 10 10 6 5 12 8 12 3
Turkey 37 4 1 5 1 8 8 4 6
Spain 58 2 5 2 6 8 1 8 2 6 6 8 4
Netherlands 70 6 6 7 7 2 6 12 12 5 7
Israel 85 6 6 4 6 3 10 1 5 2 3 10 5 3 10 10 1
Switzerland 137 7 12 5 10 10 8 10 4 10 12 10 8 4 1 7 1 12 6
Ireland 79 7 2 3 2 12 6 4 7 6 7 7 5 4 5 2
Germany 48 8 5 1 3 5 6 6 4 2 8
Austria 0
Denmark 92 10 3 4 1 12 6 1 4 4 12 10 7 12 6
Greece 10 3 7
Norway 88 5 8 7 12 7 1 8 1 3 5 7 3 4 7 10
Belgium 5 5
Luxembourg 90 4 10 12 7 5 12 12 1 2 2 6 8 2 4 3
Italy 52 8 4 7 8 2 5 3 2 8 5
France 64 2 3 8 2 2 3 3 7 3 5 1 2 10 1 12
Portugal 5 4 1
Yugoslavia 87 12 6 1 8 7 12 2 3 4 12 4 7 6 3

12 points

[edit]

The below table summarises how the maximum 12 points were awarded from one country to another. The winning country is shown in bold. Denmark, Luxembourg, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and Yugoslavia received the maximum score of 12 points from three of the voting countries, the Netherlands received two sets of 12 points, and France, Ireland, Norway and Sweden each received one maximum score.[61][62]

Distribution of 12 points awarded at the Eurovision Song Contest 1988[61][62]
N. Contestant Nation(s) giving 12 points
3  Denmark  Austria,  France,  Netherlands
 Luxembourg  Finland,  Ireland,   Switzerland
  Switzerland  Germany,  Portugal,  Sweden
 United Kingdom  Belgium,  Italy,  Turkey
 Yugoslavia  Denmark,  Iceland,  Israel
2  Netherlands  Greece,  Luxembourg
1  France  Yugoslavia
 Ireland  Spain
 Norway  United Kingdom
 Sweden  Norway

Broadcasts

[edit]

Each participating broadcaster was required to relay the contest via its networks. Non-participating EBU member broadcasters were also able to relay the contest as "passive participants".[35] Broadcasters were able to send commentators to provide coverage of the contest in their own native language and to relay information about the artists and songs to their viewers. These commentators were typically sent to the venue to report on the event, and were able to provide commentary from small booths within the venue.[35][63][64] 33 commentary booths were constructed for the event, and it was expected that the contest would be relayed by over 40 television and radio broadcasters.[65]

Known details on the broadcasts in each country, including the specific broadcasting stations and commentators are shown in the tables below.

Broadcasters and commentators in participating countries
Country Broadcaster Channel(s) Commentator(s) Ref.
 Austria ORF FS1 Ernst Grissemann [66][67]
 Belgium RTBF RTBF1 Pierre Collard-Bovy [68]
BRT TV1 Luc Appermont [69]
BRT 2 [70]
 Denmark DR DR TV, DR P2 Jørgen de Mylius [71]
 Finland YLE TV1, 2-verkko [fi] Erkki Pohjanheimo [72][73]
 France Antenne 2 Lionel Cassan [fr] [74][75]
 Germany ARD Erstes Deutsches Fernsehen Nicole and Claus-Erich Boetzkes [66][76]
 Greece ERT ET1 Dafni Bokota [77][78]
 Iceland RÚV Sjónvarpið, Rás 1 Hermann Gunnarsson [79]
 Ireland RTÉ RTÉ 1 Mike Murphy [80][81]
RTÉ FM3 Larry Gogan [82]
 Israel IBA Israeli Television, Reshet Gimel [he] [83]
 Italy RAI Rai Tre Daniele Piombi [84]
 Luxembourg CLT RTL Télévision [85]
RTL plus [70]
 Netherlands NOS Nederland 3 Willem van Beusekom [70][86]
 Norway NRK NRK Fjernsynet, NRK P2 John Andreassen [87][88]
 Portugal RTP RTP1 [89]
 Spain TVE TVE 2 Beatriz Pécker [es] [90]
 Sweden SVT TV2 Bengt Grafström [91]
RR [sv] SR P3 Kalle Oldby [92]
  Switzerland SRG SSR SRG Sportkette [de] Bernard Thurnheer [de] [66]
SSR Chaîne sportive Serge Moisson [fr] [93]
TSI Canale sportivo [94]
 Turkey TRT TV1 [95]
 United Kingdom BBC BBC1 Terry Wogan [96]
BBC Radio 2 Ken Bruce [97]
 Yugoslavia JRT TV Beograd 1, TV Novi Sad, TV Zagreb 1 Oliver Mlakar [98]
TV Ljubljana 1 [sl] [99]
Broadcasters and commentators in non-participating countries
Country Broadcaster Channel(s) Commentator(s) Ref.
 Australia SBS SBS TV[d] [100]
 Canada CBC Radio-Canada[e] Céline Dion and René Angélil [101][102]
 Cyprus CyBC RIK, A Programma [103][104]
 Czechoslovakia ČST ČST2[f] [105]
 Estonian SSR ETV[g] [106]
 Faroe Islands SvF [108]
 Greenland KNR KNR[h] [109]
 Hungary MTV MTV2 [110]
 Jordan JRTV JTV2 [111]
 Poland TP TP1[i] [112]
 Soviet Union CT USSR Programme One[g] [107]

Notes and references

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ On behalf of the German public broadcasting consortium ARD[17]
  2. ^ a b Credited on screen as "Silver Wings"
  3. ^ Confirmed by host Pat Kenny during the broadcast.[44]
  4. ^ Deferred broadcast the following day at 19:30 (AEST)[100]
  5. ^ Delayed broadcast in a shortened format on 30 May 1988 at 19:00 (EDT)[101]
  6. ^ Delayed broadcast in a shortened format on 29 May 1988 at 17:35 (CEST)[105]
  7. ^ a b Delayed broadcast on 28 May 1988 at 22:10 (MSD)[106][107]
  8. ^ Delayed broadcast on 2 May 1988 at 20:45 (WGST)[109]
  9. ^ Delayed broadcast on 14 May 1988 at 20:00 (CEST)[112]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Ireland – Participation history". European Broadcasting Union (EBU). Archived from the original on 21 June 2022. Retrieved 26 October 2023.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Roxburgh 2016, pp. 336–338.
  3. ^ "RDS Simmonscourt, Royal Dublin Society | Explore Hotels Nearby + Fairgrounds Info". Geta. Retrieved 2 November 2024.
  4. ^ a b Roxburgh 2016, pp. 371–373.
  5. ^ a b "Το σκάνδαλο Γιουροβίζιον – Ποιος παραβίασε τους κανονισμούς;" [Opinion: The Eurovision scandal – Who broke the rules?]. Haravgi (in Greek). Nicosia, Cyprus. 15 March 1988. p. 4. Retrieved 31 October 2024 – via Cyprus Press and Information Office [el].
  6. ^ "Ξεκαθαρίζει σήμερα το θέμα με Γιουροβίζιον" [Clarifies the issue with Eurovision today]. Mesimvrini (in Greek). Nicosia, Cyprus. 28 February 1988. p. 2. Retrieved 31 October 2024 – via Cyprus Press and Information Office [el].
  7. ^ "Η Κύπρος δεν μετέχει στη 'Γιουροβίζιον'" [Cyprus does not participate in Eurovision]. Haravgi (in Greek). Nicosia, Cyprus. 13 March 1988. p. 16. Retrieved 31 October 2024 – via Cyprus Press and Information Office [el].
  8. ^ "Third time lucky for Tommy Körberg?". EuroVisionary. 6 August 2012. Archived from the original on 29 March 2016. Retrieved 31 October 2024.
  9. ^ Christensen, Kasper (19 February 2011). "Da Kirsten Siggaard næsten fødte på scenen" [When Kirsten Siggaard almost gave birth on stage] (in Danish). DR. Retrieved 31 October 2024.
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  13. ^ "Boulevard" (in Spanish). Eurovision Spain. Retrieved 31 October 2024.
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  15. ^ a b Roxburgh 2016, pp. 339–347.
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  21. ^ "The Organisers behind the Eurovision Song Contest". European Broadcasting Union (EBU). Archived from the original on 25 September 2024. Retrieved 31 October 2024.
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  27. ^ a b c O'Connor 2010, pp. 112–115.
  28. ^ a b c d e f Knox 2015, p. 102–107, Chapter 12. Beauty and the Brains.
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  36. ^ Escudero, Victor M. (18 April 2020). "#EurovisionAgain travels back to Dublin 1997". European Broadcasting Union (EBU). Archived from the original on 23 May 2022. Retrieved 24 October 2023. The orchestra also saw their days numbered as, from 1997, full backing tracks were allowed without restriction, meaning that the songs could be accompanied by pre-recorded music instead of the live orchestra.
  37. ^ "In a Nutshell – Eurovision Song Contest". European Broadcasting Union (EBU). 31 March 2017. Archived from the original on 26 June 2022. Retrieved 8 October 2022.
  38. ^ a b Roxburgh 2016, p. 347.
  39. ^ Roxburgh 2014, p. 189–190.
  40. ^ Escudero, Victor M. (29 April 2020). "Happy 50th Anniversary, Eurovision 1970!". European Broadcasting Union (EBU). Archived from the original on 5 May 2020. Retrieved 17 November 2024.
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  42. ^ Roxburgh 2016, p. 371.
  43. ^ a b Roxburgh 2016, pp. 338–347.
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